What is Culture Shock?

The term culture shock refers to the adjustment period most people experience when living abroad for an extended period of time (Mumford, 1998). During culture shock the individual may experience anxiety and undergo feelings of surprise, disorientation and confusion as they attempt to operate within the foreign environment (Pantelidou & Craig, 2006). Generally, the feeling of culture shock sets in after the first few weeks of coming to a new place (Zapf, 1991). Most research describes five stages of culture however others believe there are up to eight different stages (Mumford, 1998). Nevertheless all the models show both highs and lows of adjustment. Progression through the stages is unique and some individuals may not experience all the stages (Zapf, 1991). Although culture shock is generally unavoidable there are several things that have shown to reduce the severity of symptoms and has assisted the individual in adjusting to the new environment (Zapf, 1991). Most research expresses that the more the individual is prepared for the cultural change the better they deal with it (Zapf, 1991).

Rapid change in a persons environment can cause distress not only psychologically but also physically (Pantelidou & Craig, 2006). In their own culture they feel comfortable with the language, values, ways of reasoning and in general social behaviour. Most activities in life are fairly automatic, for example answering the phone, going shopping, using money, greeting a person all come naturally and do not require extended amounts of concentration. All these things however can cause frustration and confusion in a culture unlike the your own (Pantelidou & Craig, 2006). As a response to the new environment and the complications it produces, physical changes may also occur, hypersomnia or insomnia, variation in appetite, psychosomatic illnesses (headaches, back pain, stomach aches etc.) all accompany psychological effects (Cheng, Leong, & Geist, 1993). Loneliness, boredom and frequent calls home often take place. Irritability and sometimes hostility may also occur leading to social withdrawal (Cheng, Leong, & Geist, 1993). This can then also lead to fears concerning security and safety within the home leaving the person feeling helpless and dependent. It needs to be noted however that not all people will experience the same symptoms of culture shock and the severity along with adjustment time will all vary (Cheng, Leong, & Geist, 1993).

Students studying abroad are one particular group that often suffers from culture shock. These students often suffer from ‘homesickness’ a symptom of culture shock. As reported by Poyrazli and Lopez (2007) in their study of International and American students living on campus, the effects of homesickness are typically negative and can include loneliness, sadness, and adjustment difficulties when entering the university environment. Researchers found that homesickness affects individuals’ behaviors and physical and psychological well being (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007). Students who were homesick received low scores on adaptation to the college environment and higher scores on physical complaints, anxiety, and absentmindedness (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007).

As mentioned previously, adjustment occurs in stages. The first of these is the honeymoon stage (Zapf, 1991). At this point the individual is in awe of all things and is excited to be experiencing new things. All new experiences are viewed positively as they are still considered to be exotic and fascinating. The person also still feels relatively close to things at home as it is still fresh in their mind (Zapf, 1991).

Once the curiosity has worn off and the person begins to experience more face to face situations they increasing notice differences in culture. They may view the behaviour of local people to be unusual and unpredictable, and begin to view the people and the culture in a negative light, withdrawing from social situations is also common (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004). Some may even begin to be hostile towards others and develop prejudices against the culture and reject anything new and view it as inferior. Being isolated can then draw attention to the lack of familiar support systems that were previously readily accessible (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004). Luckily for most, this stage is temporary.

Adjustment is the first stage of acceptance. The individual has usually developed a routine and is confident in dealing with problems within their new surroundings (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004). The person then begins to feel less isolated and can appreciate difference around them. The feeling of isolation dissipates and the person begins to appreciate both the differences and the similarities of their new home and may even prefer certain traits of the new culture over that of the old (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004). Some people do not seek cultural adjustment and are stuck in the previous stage, this may be because they do not agree with the values and behavior in the new environment, or because they fear to loose too much of their own cultural identity. Living in this kind of social isolation can lead to feeling, and being treated like an outsider (Zapf, 1991).

Although most literature agrees on the progression of culture shock, how they affect individuals is significantly varied. Until recently, culture shock was a relatively subjective phenomenon, however in 1997 D. B Mumford developed a questionnaire to measure the effects of culture shock. The study considered factors and circumstances that predict culture shock in young British volunteers working abroad. The questionnaire aimed to identify those at risk to their mental health and of early return home. The study looked at three hundred and eighty young British volunteers working in 27 countries, they completed the questionnaire 3 weeks after arrival. Cultural distance was the strongest predictor of culture shock accounting for 36% of variance in questionnaire scores, followed by problems at work (14%). Higher culture shock scores at 3 weeks predicted a greater risk of early return home and lower satisfaction with their time abroad (Mumford, 1998).

Poyrazli and Lopez (2007) also believed that culture shock affected people differently. They discovered that age and gender are related to homesickness. Their research found that younger people tend to experience more homesickness than do older people. Also, women experience more homesickness than men (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007). However, other researchers found that age and homesickness do not have a linear relationship, but that particular groups of peopple are more at risk to experience homesickness than are others (Eureling-Bontekoe, Brouwers, & Verschuur, 2000).

Being aware that culture shock is a natural reaction to drastic and often sudden changes in environment can be the first step in reducing the severity and the longevity of cultural adjustment (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007). Another factor that has shown to reduce the effects of culture shock is experience. Research has shown that the better travelled and experienced in adapting to new surroundings a person is, the easier over coming symptoms of culture shock is (Anderson, 1994). Once the skills needed to adjust have been learnt, they are then easily applied to other similar situations and therefore feeling settled after a relatively short period of time is likely (Anderson, 1994).

Cultural adjustment for children can be extremely difficult, the discrepancy in environment can often seem overwhelming (Bhugra, 2003). They view everything as different and unfamiliar. There are however a few strategies to help children settle in and to reduce symptoms of culture shock. Some of these may seem trivial but have shown to be affective, for example a trip to McDonalds helps remind the child that not everything they once knew has completely disappeared. Arranging social interactions with other children may also help ease the transition. For instance involving them in sport teams or clubs where they can interact with other children without the pressure of learning the language can positively reinforce the child to accept new things. Attending specific group activities eases the pressure of making friends by giving the child a reason for being part of the group (Bhugra, 2003). It will also boost their confidence, encourage them to find positive aspects of the country and teach them through friends how to make the most of the country that is now home. Having peers can also help reduce loneliness and anxiety, and provide explanations of and introductions to the new culture (Bhugra, 2003).

Although in most literature culture shock is most often attributed to negative consequences, some research has shown that it may set in motion a manic defence leading to greater achievements (Cheng, Leong, & Geist, 1993). The cultural change may be seen to encourage self development and personal growth. This however along with many other factors of culture shock has not had enough attention explaining individual responses to cultural adaptation (Cheng, Leong, & Geist, 1993). As mentioned previously, experience with culture changes leads to the ability to better adapt to new surroundings. Currently research on the difference between particular demographic groups such as actors, businessmen or diplomats who have the luxury of travel compared to those who may be forced to migrate due to such things as conflict within their own countries is underway (Eureling-Bontekoe, Brouwers, & Verschuur, 2000).

Culture shock can be both a psychological and a physiological experience (Zapf, 1991). There is an array of symptoms that can affect people in different ways. It has been found that gender, age and experience all affect how a person reacts to a cultural change (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007). Although most literature agrees that complete avoidance of culture shock is unlikely, there are actions that can be undertaken to prepare the individual for the possible affects of culture shock (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007). Despite the fact that most aspects of culture shock seem negative there is a possibility that it may spark personal growth within a person. However for most, the eventual adaptation to a new environment is rewarding, and the person can begin to appreciate differences in other cultures (Cheng, Leong, & Geist, 1993).


References

Anderson, L. E. (1994). A new look at an old construct: cross cultural adaption. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 18, 293-328.

Bhugra, D. (2003). Migration and protection. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 108, 67–72.

Chapdelaine, R. F. & Alexitch, L.R. (2004). Social skills difficulty: model of culture shock for international graduate students. Journal of College Student Development, 45, 167-184.

Cheng, D., Leong, F. T. L., & Geist, R. (1993). Cultural differences in psychological distress between Asian and American college students. Journal of Multicultural Counselling and Development, 21, 182-189.

Eurelings-Bontekoe, E. H. M., Brouwers, E. P. M., & Verschuur, M. J. (2000). Homesickness among foreign employees of a multinational high-tech company in the Netherlands. Environment and Behavior, 32, 443–456.

Mumford, D. B. (1998). The measurement of culture shock. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 33, 149-158.

Pantelidou, S. & Craig, T. K (2006). Culture shock and social support. Social Psychology and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 41, 777-781.

Poyrazli, S. & Lopez, M. D. (2007). An exploratory study of perceived discrimination and homesickness: A comparison of international students and american students. The Journal of Psychology, 141, 263–280.

Zapf, M. (1991). Cross-cultural transitions and wellness: dealing with culture shock. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 14, 105-119.